Wednesday, 15 January 2014
Climate and the Rest of Us
Climate (from Ancient Greek klima, meaning inclination) is commonly defined as the weather averaged over a long period. The standard averaging period is 30 years, but other periods may be used depending on the purpose. Climate also includes statistics other than the average, such as the magnitudes of day-to-day or year-to-year variations. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) glossary definition is:
Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the "average weather," or more rigorously, as the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical period is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). These quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, and wind. Climate in a wider sense is the state, including a statistical description, of the climate system.
The difference between climate and weather is usefully summarized by the popular phrase "Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get." Over historical time spans there are a number of nearly constant variables that determine climate, including latitude, altitude, proportion of land to water, and proximity to oceans and mountains. These change only over periods of millions of years due to processes such as plate tectonics. Other climate determinants are more dynamic: the thermohaline circulation of the ocean leads to a 5 °C (9 °F) warming of the northern Atlantic Ocean compared to other ocean basins. Other ocean currents redistribute heat between land and water on a more regional scale. The density and type of vegetation coverage affects solar heat absorption, water retention, and rainfall on a regional level. Alterations in the quantity of atmospheric greenhouse gases determines the amount of solar energy retained by the planet, leading to global warming or global cooling. The variables which determine climate are numerous and the interactions complex, but there is general agreement that the broad outlines are understood, at least insofar as the determinants of historical climate change are concerned.
TYPES OF CLIMATE
Tropical Climate
These climates are the ones where the mean monthly temperature remains generally above 22 deg. C. and they occur in the tropical zone. They do not have a perceptible winter season. The major sub types of this type are the tropical rain-forest, tropical monsoon and the tropical savanna climates.
The rain-forest climates are characterized by all the year round precipitation and they support dense evergreen forests of tall trees. The basis of the dense and tall forests is the high temperature and a large amount of precipitation, generally over 250 cms. The climates of the equatorial regions such as Zaire Basin and Amazon are of this type.
In the monsoon type of tropical climates the rainfall is seasonal and generally it occurs in the summer season. Due to this the vegetation in these regions is of deciduous type, i.e. the trees shed their leaves during the dry season. India and her neighbors in the southeast Asia constitute a major area of this type of climate.
The tropical savanna climate is the one in which the total amount of rainfall is lesser unlike the former two types where it is generally more than 200 cm. Due to lack of rainfall the typical type of vegetation in these regions is the open thorn type of forests and grasslands with occasional clumps of trees. Savanna type of climate is transitional between the tropical wet climates towards the equator and the dry climates towards the poles. Parts of northern Australia, Veld region of Africa and Venezuela are among the typical areas of this type.
Dry Climate
This climate is characterized by a general situation of water deficit and generally no permanent streams originate from such regions. It has two major sub types, tropical and subtropical deserts and the tropical and subtropical steppes.
The typical areas of desert type of climate are the Sahara, Atacama, Thar, Gobi, Arabian and Kalahari deserts. This type of climate covers a vast area in Australia also. Most of the tropical deserts occupy western margins of the continents near the tropics and the subtropical deserts are usually in the interiors of the continents where the moisture bearing winds fail to reach. Due to a lack of rainfall the deserts have very limited plant and animal life. Thorny bushes and patches of grass are the typical vegetation of these regions. The tropical deserts are also called the hot deserts.
The steppes are the areas of comparatively lower temperature and slightly more precipitation and the temperate grasses are the chief vegetation of these regions. They occupy poleward margins of the tropical and subtropical deserts. Much of the precipitation of these regions is provided by the cyclonic storms. American Prairies and Eurasian Steppes are the major areas of these grasslands. These regions are ideally suited for the cultivation of grain crops such as wheat.
Polar Climate
This climate is also known as the tundra type of climate and it is experienced in the polar regions. This climate is characterized by a long season of severe winter and even the summer season is cold. The precipitation is very low, generally below 30 cm. and due to low temperatures the vegetation is practically missing. Only during the short summer season some very lowly plants may grow only in the areas away from the polar ice caps. These regions are known for blizzards, high velocity winds carrying ice particles with them. These regions are called the cold deserts and they occupy areas of the Arctic margins of North America and Eurasia and the Antarctic continent.
The Highlands Climate
This type of climate is experienced in the mountainous regions such as the Himalayas, Tibetan Plateau, Rockies, Andes and the Alps. The climate of such regions is significantly modified by the altitude and the aspect of the slope and these regions have a variable climate. The temperature conditions vary according to altitude and the precipitation varies according to the aspect of the slope. Vegetation also has a vertical zonation. Generally such regions also suffer from a high diurnal range of temperature.
1. Polar
o Polar climates are very cold and dry throughout the year. They encompass the South Pole, the extreme northern latitudes and the interior of Greenland. Plant life is non-existent except for some algae, while the few animal species include polar bears, killer whales, seals and penguins.
Temperate
o The temperate region experiences cold winters and mild summers, and covers much of North America, Europe and the northern parts of Asia. Temperate forests grow in soil fertilized by leaf litter, producing a rich diversity of plants like oak, maple, elm and willow, and animals like deer, bear, rabbits, squirrels and birds. Temperate grasslands are dominated by flowering grasses, and are populated by such fauna as lions, wolves, zebras, foxes, snakes and deer.
Arid
o Arid zones are hot and dry all year and include the deserts of North Africa and central Asia, the southwest United States, and inland Australia. The coarse soil contains little surface water and supports mostly shrubs and short, woody trees. Animal life includes birds, reptiles, insects, rodents and small carnivores.
Tropical
o The tropical region is hot and wet, covering the jungles of South America and Africa, Southeast Asia and the islands of the Pacific. This area contains the greatest diversity of plant and animal life. Tropical forests experience about 12 hours of daylight daily, with only a rainy and dry season. They can contain 100 different tree species in a half-mile square, with small fauna like birds, bats, insects and small mammals.
Mediterranean
o A Mediterranean climate shows mild winters and hot, dry summers, and includes the land surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, Southern South America and Southern California. Plants are typically shrubby and less than three feet tall, populated by small, nocturnal animals like geckos, snakes and rodents, which are hunted by raptors like hawks.
Tundra
o The tundra is very cold all year and covers the tops of mountains, the northern extremes of North America and Asia, and the southern coast of Greenland. Though plant life may be numerous, it grows low to the ground and includes grasses and shrubs. Animal populations, which expand and shrink radically depending on the season, include caribou, squirrels, foxes, wolves, bears, and migratory birds.
Some facts about climate
The sun's rays hit the equator at a direct angle between 23 ° N and 23 ° S latitude. Radiation that reaches the atmosphere here is at its most intense.
In all other cases, the rays arrive at an angle to the surface and are less intense. The closer a place is to the poles, the smaller the angle and therefore the less intense the radiation.
Our climate system is based on the location of these hot and cold air-mass regions and the atmospheric circulation created by trade winds and westerlies.
Trade winds north of the equator blow from the northeast. South of the equator, they blow from the southeast. The trade winds of the two hemispheres meet near the equator, causing the air to rise. As the rising air cools, clouds and rain develop. The resulting bands of cloudy and rainy weather near the equator create tropical conditions.
Westerlies blow from the southwest on the Northern Hemisphere and from the northwest in the Southern Hemisphere. Westerlies steer storms from west to east across middle latitudes.
Both westerlies and trade winds blow away from the 30 ° latitude belt. Over large areas centered at 30 ° latitude, surface winds are light. Air slowly descends to replace the air that blows away. Any moisture the air contains evaporates in the intense heat. The tropical deserts, such as the Sahara of Africa and the Sonoran of Mexico, exist under these regions.
Seasons
The Earth rotates about its axis, which is tilted at 23.5 degrees. This tilt and the sun's radiation result in the Earth's seasons. The sun emits rays that hit the earth's surface at different angles. These rays transmit the highest level of energy when they strike the earth at a right angle (90 °). Temperatures in these areas tend to be the hottest places on earth. Other locations, where the sun's rays hit at lesser angles, tend to be cooler.
As the Earth rotates on it's tilted axis around the sun, different parts of the Earth receive higher and lower levels of radiant energy. This creates the seasons.
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Köppen Climate Classification System
The Köppen Climate Classification System is the most widely used for classifying the world's climates. Most classification systems used today are based on the one introduced in 1900 by the Russian-German climatologist Wladimir Köppen. Köppen divided the Earth's surface into climatic regions that generally coincided with world patterns of vegetation and soils.
The Köppen system recognizes five major climate types based on the annual and monthly averages of temperature and precipitation. Each type is designated by a capital letter.
A - Moist Tropical Climates are known for their high temperatures year round and for their large amount of year round rain.
B - Dry Climates are characterized by little rain and a huge daily temperature range. Two subgroups, S - semiarid or steppe, and W - arid or desert, are used with the B climates.
C - In Humid Middle Latitude Climates land/water differences play a large part. These climates have warm,dry summers and cool, wet winters.
D - Continental Climates can be found in the interior regions of large land masses. Total precipitation is not very high and seasonal temperatures vary widely.
E - Cold Climates describe this climate type perfectly. These climates are part of areas where permanent ice and tundra are always present. Only about four months of the year have above freezing temperatures.
Further subgroups are designated by a second, lower case letter which distinguish specific seasonal characteristics of temperature and precipitation.
f - Moist with adequate precipitation in all months and no dry season. This letter usually accompanies the A, C, and D climates.
m - Rainforest climate in spite of short, dry season in monsoon type cycle. This letter only applies to A climates.
s - There is a dry season in the summer of the respective hemisphere (high-sun season).
w - There is a dry season in the winter of the respective hemisphere (low-sun season).
To further denote variations in climate, a third letter was added to the code.
a - Hot summers where the warmest month is over 22°C (72°F). These can be found in C and D climates.
b - Warm summer with the warmest month below 22°C (72°F). These can also be found in C and D climates.
c - Cool, short summers with less than four months over 10°C (50°F) in the C and D climates.
d - Very cold winters with the coldest month below -38°C (-36°F) in the D climate only.
h - Dry-hot with a mean annual temperature over 18°C (64°F) in B climates only.
k - Dry-cold with a mean annual temperature under 18°C (64°F) in B climates only.
Three basic climate groups.
Three major climate groups show the dominance of special combinations of air-mass source regions.
Group I
Low-latitude Climates: These climates are controlled by equatorial a tropical air masses.
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• Tropical Moist Climates (Af) rainforest
Rainfall is heavy in all months. The total annual rainfall is often more than 250 cm. (100 in.). There are seasonal differences in monthly rainfall but temperatures of 27°C (80°F) mostly stay the same. Humidity is between 77 and 88%.
High surface heat and humidity cause cumulus clouds to form early in the afternoons almost every day.
The climate on eastern sides of continents are influenced by maritime tropical air masses. These air masses flow out from the moist western sides of oceanic high-pressure cells, and bring lots of summer rainfall. The summers are warm and very humid. It also rains a lot in the winter
o Average temperature: 18 °C (°F)
o Annual Precipitation: 262 cm. (103 in.)
o Latitude Range: 10° S to 25 ° N
o Global Position: Amazon Basin; Congo Basin of equatorial Africa; East Indies, from Sumatra to New Guinea.
• Wet-Dry Tropical Climates (Aw) savanna
A seasonal change occurs between wet tropical air masses and dry tropical air masses. As a result, there is a very wet season and a very dry season. Trade winds dominate during the dry season. It gets a little cooler during this dry season but will become very hot just before the wet season.
o Temperature Range: 16 °C
o Annual Precipitation: 0.25 cm. (0.1 in.). All months less than 0.25 cm. (0.1 in.)
o Latitude Range: 15 ° to 25 ° N and S
o Global Range: India, Indochina, West Africa, southern Africa, South America and the north coast of Australia
• Dry Tropical Climate (BW) desert biome
These desert climates are found in low-latitude deserts approximately between 18° to 28° in both hemispheres. these latitude belts are centered on the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, which lie just north and south of the equator. They coincide with the edge of the equatorial subtropical high pressure belt and trade winds. Winds are light, which allows for the evaporation of moisture in the intense heat. They generally flow downward so the area is seldom penetrated by air masses that produce rain. This makes for a very dry heat. The dry arid desert is a true desert climate, and covers 12 % of the Earth's land surface.
o Temperature Range: 16° C
o Annual Precipitation: 0.25 cm (0.1 in). All months less than 0.25 cm (0.1 in).
o Latitude Range: 15° - 25° N and S.
o Global Range: southwestern United States and northern Mexico; Argentina; north Africa; south Africa; central part of Australia.
Group II
• Mid-latitude Climates: Climates in this zone are affected by two different air-masses. The tropical air-masses are moving towards the poles and the polar air-masses are moving towards the equator. These two air masses are in constant conflict. Either air mass may dominate the area, but neither has exclusive control.
• Dry Midlatitude Climates (BS) steppe
Characterized by grasslands, this is a semiarid climate. It can be found between the desert climate (BW) and more humid climates of the A, C, and D groups. If it received less rain, the steppe would be classified as an arid desert. With more rain, it would be classified as a tallgrass prairie.
This dry climate exists in the interior regions of the North American and Eurasian continents. Moist ocean air masses are blocked by mountain ranges to the west and south. These mountain ranges also trap polar air in winter, making winters very cold. Summers are warm to hot.
o Temperature Range: 24° C (43° F).
o Annual Precipitation: less than 10 cm (4 in) in the driest regions to 50 cm (20 in) in the moister steppes.
o Latitude Range: 35° - 55° N.
o Global Range: Western North America (Great Basin, Columbia Plateau, Great Plains); Eurasian interior, from steppes of eastern Europe to the Gobi Desert and North China.
• Mediterranean Climate (Cs) chaparral biome
This is a wet-winter, dry-summer climate. Extremely dry summers are caused by the sinking air of the subtropical highs and may last for up to five months.
Plants have adapted to the extreme difference in rainfall and temperature between winter and summer seasons. Sclerophyll plants range in formations from forests, to woodland, and scrub. Eucalyptus forests cover most of the chaparral biome in Australia.
Fires occur frequently in Mediterranean climate zones.
o Temperature Range: 7 °C (12 °F)
o Annual Precipitation: 42 cm (17 in).
o Latitude Range: 30° - 50° N and S
o Global Position: central and southern California; coastal zones bordering the Mediterranean Sea; coastal Western Australia and South Australia; Chilean coast; Cape Town region of South Africa.
• Dry Midlatitude Climates (Bs) grasslands biome
These dry climates are limited to the interiors of North America and Eurasia.
Ocean air masses are blocked by mountain ranges to the west and south. This allows polar air masses to dominate in winter months. In the summer, a local continental air mass is dominant. A small amount of rain falls during this season.
Annual temperatures range widely. Summers are warm to hot, but winters are cold.
o Temperature Range: 31 °C (56°F).
o Annual Precipitation: 81 cm. (32 in.).
o Latitude Range: 30° - 55° N and S
o Global Position: western North America (Great Basin, Columbia Plateau, Great Plains); Eurasian interior.
• Moist Continental Climate (Cf) Deciduous Forest biome
This climate is in the polar front zone - the battleground of polar and tropical air masses. Seasonal changes between summer and winter are very large. Daily temperatures also change often. Abundant precipitation falls throughout the year. It is increased in the summer season by invading tropical air masses. Cold winters are caused by polar and arctic masses moving south.
o Temperature Range: 31 °C (56 ° F)
o Average Annual Precipitation: 81 cm (32 in).
o Latitude Range: 30° - 55° N and S (Europe: 45° - 60° N).
o Global Position: eastern parts of the United States and southern Canada; northern China; Korea; Japan; central and eastern Europe.
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Group III
• High-latitude climates: Polar and arctic air masses dominate these regions. Canada and Siberia are two air-mass sources which fall into this group. A southern hemisphere counterpart to these continental centers does not exist. Air masses of arctic origin meet polar continental air masses along the 60th and 70th parallels.
• Boreal forest Climate ( Dfc) taiga biome
This is a continental climate with long, very cold winters, and short, cool summers. This climate is found in the polar air mass region. Very cold air masses from the arctic often move in. The temperature range is larger than any other climate. Precipitation increases during summer months, although annual precipitation is still small.
Much of the boreal forest climate is considered humid. However, large areas in western Canada and Siberia receive very little precipitation and fall into the subhumid or semiarid climate type.
o Temperature Range: 41 °C (74 °F), lows; -25 °C (-14 °F), highs; 16 °C (60 °F).
o Average Annual Precipitation: 31 cm (12 in).
o Latitude Range: 50° - 70° N and S.
o Global Position: central and western Alaska; Canada, from the Yukon Territory to Labrador; Eurasia, from northern Europe across all of Siberia to the Pacific Ocean.
• Tundra Climate (E) tundra biome
The tundra climate is found along arctic coastal areas. Polar and arctic air masses dominate the tundra climate. The winter season is long and severe. A short, mild season exists, but not a true summer season. Moderating ocean winds keep the temperatures from being as severe as interior regions.
o Temperature Range: -22 °C to 6 °C (-10 °F to 41 °F).
o Average Annual Precipitation: 20 cm (8 in).
o Latitude Range: 60° - 75° N.
o Global Position: arctic zone of North America; Hudson Bay region; Greenland coast; northern Siberia bordering the Arctic Ocean.
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• Highland Climate (H) Alpine Biome
Highland climates are cool to cold, found in mountains and high plateaus. Climates change rapidly on mountains, becoming colder the higher the altitude gets. The climate of a highland area is closely related to the climate of the surrounding biome. The highlands have the same seasons and wet and dry periods as the biome they are in.
Mountain climates are very important to midlatitude biomes. They work as water storage areas. Snow is kept back until spring and summer when it is released slowly as water through melting.
o Temperature Range: -18 °C to 10 °C (-2 °F to 50°F)
o Average Annual Precipitation: 23 cm (9 in.)
o Latitude Range: found all over the world
o Global Position: Rocky Mountain Range in North America, the Andean mountain range in South America, the Alps in Europe, Mt. Kilimanjaro in Africa, the Himalayans in Tibet, Mt. Fuji in Japan.
THE LOCATION OF THE ABOVE TYPES OF CLIMATE
Worldwide Climate Classifications
References
1. ^ AR4 SYR Synthesis Report Annexes. Ipcc.ch. Retrieved on 2011-06-28.
2. ^ C. W. Thornthwaite (1948). "An Approach Toward a Rational Classification of Climate". Geographical Review 38 (1): 55–94. doi:10.2307/210739. JSTOR 210739.
3. ^ "Climate". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2008-05-14.
4. ^ "Climate averages". Met Office. Retrieved 2008-05-17.
5. ^ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Appendix I: Glossary. Retrieved on 2007-06-01.
6. ^ National Weather Service Office Tucson, Arizona. Main page. Retrieved on 2007-06-01.
7. ^ Stefan Rahmstorf The Thermohaline Ocean Circulation: A Brief Fact Sheet. Retrieved on 2008-05-02.
8. ^ Gertjan de Werk and Karel Mulder. Heat Absorption Cooling For Sustainable Air Conditioning of Households. Retrieved on 2008-05-02.
9. ^ Ledley, T.S.; Sundquist, E. T.; Schwartz, S. E.; Hall, D. K.; Fellows, J. D.; Killeen, T. L. (1999). "Climate change and greenhouse gases". EOS 80 (39): 453. Bibcode:1999EOSTr..80Q.453L. doi:10.1029/99EO00325. Retrieved 2008-05-17.
10. ^ United States National Arboretum. USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map. Retrieved on 2008-03-09
Friday, 12 August 2011
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Friday, 13 August 2010
Planting Guide
Baker Creek Heirloom Seeds Gardening Guide
Introduction
This Guide is intended as a general introduction to planting and raising seeds which are available from Baker Creek Heirloom Seeds. While we have endeavored to answer as many questions as possible, no document of this size can hope to be all encompassing. We therefore encourage you to seek additional locally specific information from your agricultural or university extension office.
Begin at the beginning
As early as possible in the year, prepare a list of the vegetables, flowers, and herbs you want to grow. Obtain the seed for them or, if too late to start your own plants this year, opt for locally purchased plants and plan to be earlier next year. Plants which mature quickly such as beans, leaf lettuce, radishes, etc. can be planted even if you purchase your seed well past the last frost date in your area. It is also possible to grow a second crop or Fall Garden by starting many seedlings in late June and July for planting and harvesting up to the First Fall Frost. Plan out on paper where in the garden you will put your plants, taking advantage of windbreaks, shade, and sunlight hours. Save the paper and add notes as your garden progresses. A full and accurate garden record is as essential a tool as a spade or trowel.
The importance of the Last Frost Date in Spring
There are two categories of plants in the garden:
Frost tender plants which will be killed by temperatures of 32 degrees or less. This group is further divided into those which must be started indoors so that they have grown into small plants before planting after the last Spring frost and those which will simply be direct seeded into the garden soil after the frost date.
Hardy plants will not be killed if your early Spring temperatures drop into the lower 30’s. These can be planted directly in cool soils without pre-starting in the house.
Find out your Last Frost Date
You can ask gardening neighbors, call any local agricultural or university extension offices, ask at a garden supply or nursery or at the feed store, or consult a map through several on-line sources. With this date you can now work backwards through the early Spring months and work out what needs to be started and when.
When (and Where) to start your seeds
Vegetable Weeks Before Last Frost Date
Start indoors and transfer outdoors after last frost (These plants are tender)
Chives; Globe Artichoke; Leeks; Onions; 12
Celery; 10
Eggplant; Peppers; Tomatillo; Tomatoes; 8
Broccoli; Cabbage; Cauliflower; 6
Cucmbers; Melons; Okra; Pumpkins; Squash; 3
Direct Seed in garden before last frost (These plants are hardy) Weeks before last frost date
Onion Sets; Seed Potatoes; 6
Kale; Kohlrabi; Spinach; Turnips; Mustard; 5
Beets; Carrots; Chinese Cabbage; Endive; Peas (English); Radish; 4
Lettuce (all types); Swiss Chard; 2
Direct seed in garden after last frost (Tender) Weeks after last frost date
Beans (Lima); Celeriac; Cowpeas; 1-2
Corn; Muskmelon; Watermelon; Okra; 2
Pumpkins; Squash; 2
Cucumbers; Peanuts; Amaranth; 2
Starting Seeds Indoors
Collect the necessary materials for starting seeds. You will need pots or other containers, soil medium, and plastic bags or wrap. Containers can be anything from yoghurt cups to purchased flowerpots, but all should have drainage holes in the bottom so there is adequate drainage for your seedlings. Egg cartons are too shallow; there should be about 3” of soil medium in the container to encourage proper growth of the young roots. For “soil” buy bags of seed starting mixture (note to Organic Growers – may contain chemical fertilizers; read the bag carefully) or make your own. Good soil-less mixes can be made from 50% peat moss with 50% vermiculite or buy bags of potting soil and add 50% peat moss that is 1 quart peat moss to 2 quarts potting soil. Potting soil used by itself is too heavy and packs down easily. Garden soil (dirt), in addition to being too heavy, contains many microbes, including some disease bacteria which may attack your young plants, causing early death.
Moisten all mixes before planting the seeds. Plastic bags or wrap will keep the moisture in your seed trays and aid in faster germination. Fill your containers with the moistened mix and press it down into the container so that you have a firm bed for the seeds. You don’t want them to fall down to the bottom of the container and not germinate! With a stick or pencil create a little trench in the soil or punch a small row of shallow holes. Very important note: Most seeds should be buried to a depth of one or two times the diameter of the seed. For instance, this means that small seeds like tomatoes should barely be a quarter of an inch below the surface of the soil. Remember that in nature most seeds just lay on the surface of the ground before germinating. Having planted your seeds, take care not to overcrowd them; very lightly press a little more soil mixture on top and lightly mist with water. Place the whole container in a clear plastic bag or under a sheet of plastic wrap. Remove it immediately after the first seed germinates.
In addition to requiring a soil medium and water to grow, seeds also require warmth and light. A warm spot in the house, such as on top of the refrigerator, will provide the heat. Seedling heating mats with thermostatic controls may be purchased. Once the seedlings have emerged, light becomes extremely important. A sunny windowsill may have to suffice, (remember to turn the seed trays every other day), but ideally a pair of low-cost fluorescent shop lights should be suspended on chains about 2 to 4 inches above the growing tops of the seedlings. Turn the light on for up to 16 hours per day and then let the plants rest during 8 hours of darkness. Keep the seedlings warm during the day hours (70º) and reduce the temperature to 60º at night. Lightly water when the soil feels dry to the touch using water at room temperature. Check often as in heated indoor conditions soil mix dries out quickly.
When the seedlings have grown their first set of true leaves (which are the 3rd and 4th to emerge), they should be fed with a dilute liquid feed. This can be a commercial houseplant food diluted to 50% weakness with extra water or a fish and kelp emulsion organic food (note: this will smell “fishy” for some hours after use). At this time also, seedlings can be moved up into larger containers if needed. When transplanting seedlings into larger containers, hold the young plant by the leaves and not by the stem. The leaves, if damaged, can be replaced as the plant grows taller, but if the stem is damaged by rough handling the plant will likely die.
What went wrong with my seedlings?
Didn’t germinate at all or very few germinated–There are a few possible causes to this problem. The first may be old seed and/or kept in poor storage conditions. Seed sold commercially is sold for use in that season and has been tested and shown to have a germination rate of at least 80%. Seed that has been kept for more than a year in less than ideal conditions (for instance in a warm place or a moist one) may then not germinate up to the known percentage. Some seeds take a very long time to germinate, and perhaps you have simply not waited long enough—celery and parsley seed, for instance, can take at least 21 days to germinate. If your soil temperature is too cool, seeds will take a long time to break their dormancy. Eggplants and peppers like temperatures around 75º to 80º and slow considerably when started in cooler conditions. Excessive watering may have rotted the seed in the soil mix before it even had a chance to sprout. The soil mix should be damp but not dripping.
Seedlings that grow normally and then drop over or that show signs of fungus or mold are likely victims of dampening off, a bacteria-borne disease. To avoid this condition, always use a soil-less mix which is sterile and rinse thoroughly all containers before use with a bleach and water solution (1 part bleach to 10 parts water). Dip your tools in this same solution and ensure that your hands are always clean when handling seedlings, especially if coming in from outside gardening chores. A chemical solution of Benomyl fungicide can be used in greenhouse environments to control these diseases. Water from the bottom whenever possible. This means standing the pots in a shallow pan of water and letting them soak up the liquid rather than using a watering can.
Pot-bound seedlings have been growing too long in a container which is too small. Likely all nutrients in the soil have been exhausted and the plant needs to be moved into a larger container with fresh mix around the roots. Take care not to damage the roots when transplanting, especially if they have gone through the drainage holes in the bottom of your pots!
Seedlings that are too leggy or tall have been grown without sufficient light, so the plant has stretched out reaching for it. Try to get the seedlings into a place where light is available for more hours per day. Tall tomato plants can be buried deeply when transferring into larger pots or when being moved out to the garden. Any buried stem will develop roots along its length.
Yellowed or sickly looking seedlings may need feeding or less watering. Allow the mix to dry out and then feed with a liquid food at diluted strength.
Hardening off
Seedlings that have been grown indoors now need time to transition into the outside world. If possible, move the trays of young plants outside for some hours of daylight and then return them to the protection of the house at night. A selected spot should be out of direct wind or sun and preferably not likely to be soaked by heavy rain either. After a week of this protected environment, the seedlings should be ready to be planted in the garden beds.
How to plant seedlings in the garden
Once the plants have been hardened off and the danger of frost is past (if applicable) take the seedlings and a full watering can out to the row or bed. Using the spacing chart provided in the next section, dig a small hole. Place the seedling in the ground at about the height it was growing in the pot (except tomatoes, which can be buried or laid on an angle). Press the earth down firmly and water well. Continue watering during the next few days. In some areas, cutworms are a problem. They will eat off the seedling at ground level during the night and then burrow into the ground to rest. Place a small strip (2” x 6”) of newspaper around the stem as a collar. This will decay into the soil, but thwart the cutworms’ attack.
Plant seed and seedlings according to the following row spacing chart
if you are using rows in your vegetable garden. If your direct-sown seedlings come up too close together based on this chart, carefully pull out additional ones to achieve the desired spacing.
Inches Vegetable
2 Radishes
3 Carrots; Peas;
4 Beets; Leaf Lettuce; Onions; Parsnips; Spinach; Turnips;
6 Beans (Bush); Collards; Celery; Mustard;
8 Beans (Pole); Beans (Lima); Head Lettuce; Kohlrabi; Rutabaga;
10 Chicory; Endive;
12 Cabbage; Kale; Sweet and Dent Corn;
18 Broccoli; Brussel Sprouts; Cauliflower; Cucumber; Eggplant; Okra; Peppers; Tomatoes;
24 Asparagus; Tomatillo;
36 Rhubarb;
48 Musk Melons; Squash (Summer and Winter); Zucchini;
60 Pumpkins;
96 Watermelons;
Other methods of setting out plants
Wide row planting – In this method, a bed approximately 30” wide is planted by broadcasting (scattering) the seed across it. This works well in salad gardens where a mix of small greens is harvested at a very immature stage. Harvesting may be done by thinning the bed; that is, pulling out some of the plants growing together in a cluster, or by use of a pair of scissors snipping here and there along the bed to obtain enough salad for the desired use. Larger vegetable drops such as cabbage can also be wide row planted using a staggered pattern of the rows and allowing the minimum row distance per plant between specimens in each direction. In the case of cabbage, this would be 12” on center in a diamond shaped pattern.
Raised beds – Instead of planting at ground level, the surface of the soil is raised above the walkways. Soil may be simply mounded up, or retained within artificial walls of concrete blocks, cut down wooden pallets, old timbers, etc. Make them a size that you can reach into without difficulty, for instance 4 ft. wide by 12 ft. long with access on all sides. Compost and other soil improvements are distributed inside the raised area, and the soil is never compacted by foot traffic. Set out plants in a grid pattern to take advantage of all useable space. These raised beds may be ideal for use by a gardener with mobility problems.
Container gardening – Ideal for gardeners in city environments or for patio gardens. Take extra large plant tubs or half whisky barrels and fill with a good quality garden or potting soil. Allow for good drainage so that roots do not become waterlogged. Seeds can be direct seeded into a barrel or transplanted from seedlings. Put taller plants towards the back so as not to overshadow smaller ones. Feed and water more often as roots are in competition in this limited space. Promptly remove any insect pests or diseased plants to avoid damage to the whole collection.
Water and feed regularly
Just as you fed and watered your seedlings in the house, so they will continue to need attention in the garden. Perhaps it isn’t raining much this summer, and your plants are drooping in the early morning. This is a sure sign that watering is needed. Most plants will wilt in the hot afternoons of summer and recover overnight. If you are using a sprinkler system and hose, keep a rain gauge in the garden to ensure that all plants receive up to an inch. Do this once a week rather than watering daily in small amounts. Do not water in the midday or heat of the afternoon; too much will be lost to evaporation. Spread mulch around the plants to cool the soil and slow down drying. Use black plastic or grass clippings or compost. These will also choke out weeds.
Organic gardeners can feed their vegetables with liquid or dried fish and kelp products and regular side dressings of compost. Do not put manures directly on the garden plants as it is too strong and will damage or kill them. Non-organic gardeners can purchase chemical fertilizers in granular or liquid form and apply per the instructions, taking care not to touch the leaves or stems, as these are also concentrated products and can burn your plants.
Provide support to strong plants
Tall or vining plants such as pole beans, tomatoes, cucumbers, and peas will require staking or other means of support. Peas can be grown on discarded brush stuck in along the rows or on meshes or nets specially sold for the purpose. Tomato cages can be bought commercially but are often too small for heirloom varieties which can often grow to 6 or more feet in height. Install fence posts or lengths of galvanized wire in advance of the plants needing them so that you will be ready to tie up your sprawling vines before they set fruit.
How long till harvest?
The following table gives approximate days between planting in the garden and harvest. Note that plants which are set out as seedlings (tomatoes, peppers, eggplants, cabbage, broccoli, etc.) do not include the time spent growing indoors before setting out in the garden.
Radish; 25-35 days
Turnip Greens; Spinach; Mustard Greens; Lettuce (leaf); Onions (Green); 35-45 days
Kale; Swiss Chard; Kohlrabi; Beans (Bush and Wax); Beets; Lettuce (Head); Turnip; Amaranth (As a vegetable); 50-60 days
Cauliflower; Peas (English); Beans (Pole); Okra; Cucumber; 60-70 days
Broccoli; Carrot; Pepper; Cabbage; Chinese Cabbage; Sweet Corn; Lima Beans (Bush); Crowder Peas; 70-85 days
Watermelon; Collards; Cantaloupe; Tomato; Lima Beans (Pole); Eggplant; Endive; Summer Squash; Rutabaga; 80-90 days
Winter Squash; Onions (Dry); Tomatillo; 100 days
Potato; Celeriac; Pumpkins; up to 120 days
Peanuts; 135 days
Sweet Potato; Parsnips; Salsify; 150 days
Rhubarb; 2 years
Asparagus; 3 years
Insect Patrol
While there are commercial insect sprays available at all garden centers, most will have the disadvantage of also killing beneficial insects which are so important to the life of your garden. Rather than introduce these products to your eco-system, take time to look at the plants and discover if there is any damage and what might be the cause. The white cabbage butterfly can be seen flitting about between your cabbage plants in June. Just turn over the leaves and search out the newly laid egg clusters. Wipe them off with your fingers or a cloth and you have prevented damage from this pest. Look at potato leaves for the eggs of the Colorado Potato Beetle which is a small black and white striped insect. Caterpillars may be removed and crushed underfoot. Look for small piles of green “manure” on your plant leaves in the early morning and you will often find the caterpillar tucked under a shady leaf for the day. Tomato Hornworms can easily be detected simply by the amount of damage done in one night. Find this large pale green worm and dispatch him summarily underfoot or feed him to your chickens!
Weeds
Pull weeds daily or at least while they are small. On no account let weeds go to seed in the garden, as your job next year will be that much harder. Be sure if at all possible to pull the entire plant including the root, as many weeds can re-grow from severed root stock if it is not all removed. Remember that a weed is any plant not growing in the desired location, so a volunteer tomato plant growing in your onion bed should be pulled out and discarded and transplanted into the tomato row.
Cover Crops
In dormant places in the garden or after harvesting an early crop, sow a plant which will be dug back into the soil as an improvement. Examples of such “cover crops” or “green manures” would be alfalfa, buckwheat, Sudangrass, hairy vetch, annual rye grass, or a legume crop such as cow or field peas or soybeans. Broadcast seed widely over the area and allow the plants to come up thickly so as to choke weeds and provide a living canopy over the soil surface. Roto-till or scythe and then dig the residues into the ground and improve your soil organically by providing food for earthworms and much needed plant material (humus) in the soil’s composition. Sandy soils will hold moisture with more humus, and clay soils are aerated or broken down with addition of humus. Be sure to allow enough time for your cover crops to break down in the soil before replanting vegetables.
Making Compost
In one corner of every good garden there should be a compost pile ready to receive weeds and crop residues. Do not leave cabbage leaves, corn stalks, or other plant leavings standing in the garden as they will provide habitats for over-wintering insect pests and diseases. Either loosely stack plant material in a heap or purchase or make your own compost container. A length of open weave wire fence can be formed into a circle about 3 to 4 ft. across and preferably no higher than 3 ft. on the sides. To make compost you need three things: organic matter, air, and water. Damp down the layers as you build the pile with a hose or watering can. In dry periods water the entire pile if rain is not expected to fall. The pile should be damp but not saturated.
Your compost “circle” should be filled by alternating layers of organic matter: dry brown (carbon) and moist green (nitrogen) materials (for example, used hay or straw between layers of grass clippings and weeds). Do not make any layer more than 4” deep, or you may smother the pile so that it cannot breakdown properly and instead merely decays in a stinking mess. Allow air to circulate through the container and lay branches or poles through the pile which can be removed later to produce air channels. Add kitchen scraps but no meat, which will encourage raiding animals. Barnyard manure may be added in small quantities to the various layers, but please no dog, cat, or human wastes because of the danger of pathogens.
If possible turn the compost once during the summer season; that is, prepare another such “circle” or bin, and fork the full heap over into the empty one. This will speed up the breakdown of the material in the pile. If you cannot turn your compost, simply let it sit through one garden season and winter and use it next Spring. Shovelfuls can be dug into beds or placed around perennial plants as a top dressing or mulch. Note that compost is produced by the breaking down of plant residues and manure, and this break down will continue after you have added the compost to the soil – in other words, do as nature does and keep making more!
Harvesting – Deciding if your fruits and vegetables are ready to be eaten
Most vegetables are at their peak when harvested small. Young, tender carrots, for instance, taste much better than older, woody ones. If you are approaching the number of days to harvest for the variety, closely examine the crops and see if some specimens could not now be taken and enjoyed. Some plants have specific tests to see if they have reached maturity. For instance, a Hubbard squash is good for root cellar storage if the skin is tough. Try with your fingernail to make an impression in the skin. If you can’t, it is ready for long term storage. Cantaloupes are ripe for eating when gently sliding your thumb against the vine easily separates it from the melon. They also have a strong fruit odor. Watermelons are ready when they sound hollow or thud when you knock on them. Consult gardening books for other “Is it ready to eat?” tips.
Preserving your harvest
Canning – Preserve many garden products by canning in glass jars or tin cans. Some may be processed in boiling water baths while others must be canned in pressure cookers. The ultimate reference for canning is the Ball Blue Book, published by Alltrista Corp., Muncie, IN 47307-0729. Please consult modern tables for canning times and information as older material has been revised.
Root cellar – If your home has a basement, take one corner and build a root cellar. This should be an unheated area which can be kept dark and cool. Provide open rack shelving and slatted bins for storage of whole winter squash, onions, or potatoes. Provide a screened ventilation source and check the stored produce regularly to look for decay and signs of insect or mice damage. Put out traps if necessary, not poison, to protect your food supply.
Freezing – Many vegetables can be successfully frozen after a process known as blanching, in which the produce is immersed quickly into boiling water and then packed in plastic tubs or strong plastic bags.
Drying – Commercial, round, electric powered food dehydrators are readily available, often with additional drying racks. Many fruits and vegetables can be processed in this way and stored in a small space due to the reduction in bulk. Tomatoes for drying should be of the paste rather than beefsteak type. Dryers are ideal for preserving herb crops too. Weigh produce before drying and during the process to determine the percentage of water lost. Foods should be cooled and then stored in airtight containers when the required percentage of water has been driven off. See manufacturer’s directions. Solar dryers can be homemade and home ovens can be used as dehydrators too.
Saving seed for next year
If you want to save seed, there are several books available on the subject. You can learn how to keep plants pure so that their seeds run true-to-type, as growing parent plants properly is the key to producing good seed for subsequent years. As a very general rule for the beginning seed saver, note that any plant with the same Latin name as another plant has the ability to, and most likely will, cross pollinate. In layman’s terms, planting Hubbard True Green Squash (Cucurbita maxima) and Big Max pumpkins (also Cucurbita maxima) in the same garden means that you should not save seed from either as they are insect pollinated. In all likelihood, the bees that went to one plant’s flowers also went to the other one so you will have a crossed seed resulting. If the plants have different Latin names, like cucumbers (Cucumis sativus) and zucchini (Cucurbita pepo), they cannot cross. On the other hand, several varieties of self-pollinated plants like beans, peas, tomatoes, and lettuce can be grown together without too much fear of crossing. If in any doubt, please consult a book on this fascinating topic.
Having grown your vegetables for seed, select the best specimens from the best plants and let the fruit fully mature to ensure that the seed within is at its best too. Cucumbers, for example, must be grown till well past their eating stage to grow seed useful for saving. Tomato, squash, pumpkin, melon, and cucumber seed all benefit from fermenting the seeds and the surrounding pulp for about three days before cleaning and then drying. The pulp should be put into a jar with a little water and shaken or stirred twice daily for three days. At the end of this time the pulp and immature seeds will be floating on top as scum, and the mature and useful seeds will have sunk to the bottom. Take these and dry them on labeled paper plates for about two weeks before placing in a cool, dry place; for instance, in a bag or tub in the freezer ready for planting next year.
Putting your garden to rest for the winter
Remove all crop residue and weeds from the entire garden and dump all in the compost bin. Anything left in the garden may harbor over-wintering insects which will be poised ready to attack your new crops in the Spring. If possible plant the garden with a cover crop, especially annual ryegrass, before the first Winter frost. This will grow into a thick cover for the garden and protect the soil from erosion over the cold season. Otherwise lay down a blanket of straw as mulch or even leaves collected in the Fall. These will cover the soil and break down before the next planting. Anything remaining in Spring can be raked up and put in the compost bin then.
Planning for next season
When planning locations of next year’s crops rotate your rows or beds so that each vegetable is planted in a different location than it was the previous year. Keep all your garden plans for a few years at a time to ensure you are holding to this rule.
Seed Starting Chart for Flowers
Follow the general seed starting directions above.
Flower Variety Weeks before last spring frost to start plants indoors
Pansies; Poppies; Snapdragons; 12
Calendula; 6
Marigolds; Zinnias; Nasturtium; Morning Glories; 4
Planting and Growing Sunflowers
For giant sized heads, space the plants at least three or four feet apart. Overcrowding will cause the plants to fall in heavy winds. In garden beds the plants should be grown along a fence or property line. There are also dwarf and semi-dwarf varieties which may be grown in mixed flower beds. Some produce multiple flower heads on branching stems.
Planting and Growing Sweet Peas
These do best in cool summers and need cool moist weather to grow and flower well. Sow the seed outside as soon as the ground can be worked in Spring. Vining varieties, which may often reach 10 feet in height, should be planted about 3” apart and support provided. Bushy types should be planted with about 10” between plants. All types need to be repeatedly cut for bouquets as they will die once setting seed. Please note: plants, pods, and seeds of Sweet Pea flower are all poisonous.
Seed Starting Chart for Herbs
Follow the general seed starting directions above.
Herb Variety Weeks before last spring frost to start plants indoors
Chives (Garlic and Onion); Oregano; Yarrow; Parsley; 12-14
Thyme; Chamomile. Feverfew; Catnip; 8-12
Dill; Chervil; Coriander; Lemon Balm; Sage; Savory; Basil; 6-8
Row Spacing Chart for Herb Plantings
Set out your herb seedlings according to the following chart:
Inches Herb Variety
6 Anise; Caraway; Chervil; Chives; Marjoram; Parsley; Savory; Sesame; Shallot;
10 Basil; Hyssop; Thyme;
12 Burnet; Costmary; Dill; Mint; Oregano; Tarragon;
15 Sage; Borage;
18 Fennel; Lemon Balm (Melissa officinalis); Rosemary; S
Introduction
This Guide is intended as a general introduction to planting and raising seeds which are available from Baker Creek Heirloom Seeds. While we have endeavored to answer as many questions as possible, no document of this size can hope to be all encompassing. We therefore encourage you to seek additional locally specific information from your agricultural or university extension office.
Begin at the beginning
As early as possible in the year, prepare a list of the vegetables, flowers, and herbs you want to grow. Obtain the seed for them or, if too late to start your own plants this year, opt for locally purchased plants and plan to be earlier next year. Plants which mature quickly such as beans, leaf lettuce, radishes, etc. can be planted even if you purchase your seed well past the last frost date in your area. It is also possible to grow a second crop or Fall Garden by starting many seedlings in late June and July for planting and harvesting up to the First Fall Frost. Plan out on paper where in the garden you will put your plants, taking advantage of windbreaks, shade, and sunlight hours. Save the paper and add notes as your garden progresses. A full and accurate garden record is as essential a tool as a spade or trowel.
The importance of the Last Frost Date in Spring
There are two categories of plants in the garden:
Frost tender plants which will be killed by temperatures of 32 degrees or less. This group is further divided into those which must be started indoors so that they have grown into small plants before planting after the last Spring frost and those which will simply be direct seeded into the garden soil after the frost date.
Hardy plants will not be killed if your early Spring temperatures drop into the lower 30’s. These can be planted directly in cool soils without pre-starting in the house.
Find out your Last Frost Date
You can ask gardening neighbors, call any local agricultural or university extension offices, ask at a garden supply or nursery or at the feed store, or consult a map through several on-line sources. With this date you can now work backwards through the early Spring months and work out what needs to be started and when.
When (and Where) to start your seeds
Vegetable Weeks Before Last Frost Date
Start indoors and transfer outdoors after last frost (These plants are tender)
Chives; Globe Artichoke; Leeks; Onions; 12
Celery; 10
Eggplant; Peppers; Tomatillo; Tomatoes; 8
Broccoli; Cabbage; Cauliflower; 6
Cucmbers; Melons; Okra; Pumpkins; Squash; 3
Direct Seed in garden before last frost (These plants are hardy) Weeks before last frost date
Onion Sets; Seed Potatoes; 6
Kale; Kohlrabi; Spinach; Turnips; Mustard; 5
Beets; Carrots; Chinese Cabbage; Endive; Peas (English); Radish; 4
Lettuce (all types); Swiss Chard; 2
Direct seed in garden after last frost (Tender) Weeks after last frost date
Beans (Lima); Celeriac; Cowpeas; 1-2
Corn; Muskmelon; Watermelon; Okra; 2
Pumpkins; Squash; 2
Cucumbers; Peanuts; Amaranth; 2
Starting Seeds Indoors
Collect the necessary materials for starting seeds. You will need pots or other containers, soil medium, and plastic bags or wrap. Containers can be anything from yoghurt cups to purchased flowerpots, but all should have drainage holes in the bottom so there is adequate drainage for your seedlings. Egg cartons are too shallow; there should be about 3” of soil medium in the container to encourage proper growth of the young roots. For “soil” buy bags of seed starting mixture (note to Organic Growers – may contain chemical fertilizers; read the bag carefully) or make your own. Good soil-less mixes can be made from 50% peat moss with 50% vermiculite or buy bags of potting soil and add 50% peat moss that is 1 quart peat moss to 2 quarts potting soil. Potting soil used by itself is too heavy and packs down easily. Garden soil (dirt), in addition to being too heavy, contains many microbes, including some disease bacteria which may attack your young plants, causing early death.
Moisten all mixes before planting the seeds. Plastic bags or wrap will keep the moisture in your seed trays and aid in faster germination. Fill your containers with the moistened mix and press it down into the container so that you have a firm bed for the seeds. You don’t want them to fall down to the bottom of the container and not germinate! With a stick or pencil create a little trench in the soil or punch a small row of shallow holes. Very important note: Most seeds should be buried to a depth of one or two times the diameter of the seed. For instance, this means that small seeds like tomatoes should barely be a quarter of an inch below the surface of the soil. Remember that in nature most seeds just lay on the surface of the ground before germinating. Having planted your seeds, take care not to overcrowd them; very lightly press a little more soil mixture on top and lightly mist with water. Place the whole container in a clear plastic bag or under a sheet of plastic wrap. Remove it immediately after the first seed germinates.
In addition to requiring a soil medium and water to grow, seeds also require warmth and light. A warm spot in the house, such as on top of the refrigerator, will provide the heat. Seedling heating mats with thermostatic controls may be purchased. Once the seedlings have emerged, light becomes extremely important. A sunny windowsill may have to suffice, (remember to turn the seed trays every other day), but ideally a pair of low-cost fluorescent shop lights should be suspended on chains about 2 to 4 inches above the growing tops of the seedlings. Turn the light on for up to 16 hours per day and then let the plants rest during 8 hours of darkness. Keep the seedlings warm during the day hours (70º) and reduce the temperature to 60º at night. Lightly water when the soil feels dry to the touch using water at room temperature. Check often as in heated indoor conditions soil mix dries out quickly.
When the seedlings have grown their first set of true leaves (which are the 3rd and 4th to emerge), they should be fed with a dilute liquid feed. This can be a commercial houseplant food diluted to 50% weakness with extra water or a fish and kelp emulsion organic food (note: this will smell “fishy” for some hours after use). At this time also, seedlings can be moved up into larger containers if needed. When transplanting seedlings into larger containers, hold the young plant by the leaves and not by the stem. The leaves, if damaged, can be replaced as the plant grows taller, but if the stem is damaged by rough handling the plant will likely die.
What went wrong with my seedlings?
Didn’t germinate at all or very few germinated–There are a few possible causes to this problem. The first may be old seed and/or kept in poor storage conditions. Seed sold commercially is sold for use in that season and has been tested and shown to have a germination rate of at least 80%. Seed that has been kept for more than a year in less than ideal conditions (for instance in a warm place or a moist one) may then not germinate up to the known percentage. Some seeds take a very long time to germinate, and perhaps you have simply not waited long enough—celery and parsley seed, for instance, can take at least 21 days to germinate. If your soil temperature is too cool, seeds will take a long time to break their dormancy. Eggplants and peppers like temperatures around 75º to 80º and slow considerably when started in cooler conditions. Excessive watering may have rotted the seed in the soil mix before it even had a chance to sprout. The soil mix should be damp but not dripping.
Seedlings that grow normally and then drop over or that show signs of fungus or mold are likely victims of dampening off, a bacteria-borne disease. To avoid this condition, always use a soil-less mix which is sterile and rinse thoroughly all containers before use with a bleach and water solution (1 part bleach to 10 parts water). Dip your tools in this same solution and ensure that your hands are always clean when handling seedlings, especially if coming in from outside gardening chores. A chemical solution of Benomyl fungicide can be used in greenhouse environments to control these diseases. Water from the bottom whenever possible. This means standing the pots in a shallow pan of water and letting them soak up the liquid rather than using a watering can.
Pot-bound seedlings have been growing too long in a container which is too small. Likely all nutrients in the soil have been exhausted and the plant needs to be moved into a larger container with fresh mix around the roots. Take care not to damage the roots when transplanting, especially if they have gone through the drainage holes in the bottom of your pots!
Seedlings that are too leggy or tall have been grown without sufficient light, so the plant has stretched out reaching for it. Try to get the seedlings into a place where light is available for more hours per day. Tall tomato plants can be buried deeply when transferring into larger pots or when being moved out to the garden. Any buried stem will develop roots along its length.
Yellowed or sickly looking seedlings may need feeding or less watering. Allow the mix to dry out and then feed with a liquid food at diluted strength.
Hardening off
Seedlings that have been grown indoors now need time to transition into the outside world. If possible, move the trays of young plants outside for some hours of daylight and then return them to the protection of the house at night. A selected spot should be out of direct wind or sun and preferably not likely to be soaked by heavy rain either. After a week of this protected environment, the seedlings should be ready to be planted in the garden beds.
How to plant seedlings in the garden
Once the plants have been hardened off and the danger of frost is past (if applicable) take the seedlings and a full watering can out to the row or bed. Using the spacing chart provided in the next section, dig a small hole. Place the seedling in the ground at about the height it was growing in the pot (except tomatoes, which can be buried or laid on an angle). Press the earth down firmly and water well. Continue watering during the next few days. In some areas, cutworms are a problem. They will eat off the seedling at ground level during the night and then burrow into the ground to rest. Place a small strip (2” x 6”) of newspaper around the stem as a collar. This will decay into the soil, but thwart the cutworms’ attack.
Plant seed and seedlings according to the following row spacing chart
if you are using rows in your vegetable garden. If your direct-sown seedlings come up too close together based on this chart, carefully pull out additional ones to achieve the desired spacing.
Inches Vegetable
2 Radishes
3 Carrots; Peas;
4 Beets; Leaf Lettuce; Onions; Parsnips; Spinach; Turnips;
6 Beans (Bush); Collards; Celery; Mustard;
8 Beans (Pole); Beans (Lima); Head Lettuce; Kohlrabi; Rutabaga;
10 Chicory; Endive;
12 Cabbage; Kale; Sweet and Dent Corn;
18 Broccoli; Brussel Sprouts; Cauliflower; Cucumber; Eggplant; Okra; Peppers; Tomatoes;
24 Asparagus; Tomatillo;
36 Rhubarb;
48 Musk Melons; Squash (Summer and Winter); Zucchini;
60 Pumpkins;
96 Watermelons;
Other methods of setting out plants
Wide row planting – In this method, a bed approximately 30” wide is planted by broadcasting (scattering) the seed across it. This works well in salad gardens where a mix of small greens is harvested at a very immature stage. Harvesting may be done by thinning the bed; that is, pulling out some of the plants growing together in a cluster, or by use of a pair of scissors snipping here and there along the bed to obtain enough salad for the desired use. Larger vegetable drops such as cabbage can also be wide row planted using a staggered pattern of the rows and allowing the minimum row distance per plant between specimens in each direction. In the case of cabbage, this would be 12” on center in a diamond shaped pattern.
Raised beds – Instead of planting at ground level, the surface of the soil is raised above the walkways. Soil may be simply mounded up, or retained within artificial walls of concrete blocks, cut down wooden pallets, old timbers, etc. Make them a size that you can reach into without difficulty, for instance 4 ft. wide by 12 ft. long with access on all sides. Compost and other soil improvements are distributed inside the raised area, and the soil is never compacted by foot traffic. Set out plants in a grid pattern to take advantage of all useable space. These raised beds may be ideal for use by a gardener with mobility problems.
Container gardening – Ideal for gardeners in city environments or for patio gardens. Take extra large plant tubs or half whisky barrels and fill with a good quality garden or potting soil. Allow for good drainage so that roots do not become waterlogged. Seeds can be direct seeded into a barrel or transplanted from seedlings. Put taller plants towards the back so as not to overshadow smaller ones. Feed and water more often as roots are in competition in this limited space. Promptly remove any insect pests or diseased plants to avoid damage to the whole collection.
Water and feed regularly
Just as you fed and watered your seedlings in the house, so they will continue to need attention in the garden. Perhaps it isn’t raining much this summer, and your plants are drooping in the early morning. This is a sure sign that watering is needed. Most plants will wilt in the hot afternoons of summer and recover overnight. If you are using a sprinkler system and hose, keep a rain gauge in the garden to ensure that all plants receive up to an inch. Do this once a week rather than watering daily in small amounts. Do not water in the midday or heat of the afternoon; too much will be lost to evaporation. Spread mulch around the plants to cool the soil and slow down drying. Use black plastic or grass clippings or compost. These will also choke out weeds.
Organic gardeners can feed their vegetables with liquid or dried fish and kelp products and regular side dressings of compost. Do not put manures directly on the garden plants as it is too strong and will damage or kill them. Non-organic gardeners can purchase chemical fertilizers in granular or liquid form and apply per the instructions, taking care not to touch the leaves or stems, as these are also concentrated products and can burn your plants.
Provide support to strong plants
Tall or vining plants such as pole beans, tomatoes, cucumbers, and peas will require staking or other means of support. Peas can be grown on discarded brush stuck in along the rows or on meshes or nets specially sold for the purpose. Tomato cages can be bought commercially but are often too small for heirloom varieties which can often grow to 6 or more feet in height. Install fence posts or lengths of galvanized wire in advance of the plants needing them so that you will be ready to tie up your sprawling vines before they set fruit.
How long till harvest?
The following table gives approximate days between planting in the garden and harvest. Note that plants which are set out as seedlings (tomatoes, peppers, eggplants, cabbage, broccoli, etc.) do not include the time spent growing indoors before setting out in the garden.
Radish; 25-35 days
Turnip Greens; Spinach; Mustard Greens; Lettuce (leaf); Onions (Green); 35-45 days
Kale; Swiss Chard; Kohlrabi; Beans (Bush and Wax); Beets; Lettuce (Head); Turnip; Amaranth (As a vegetable); 50-60 days
Cauliflower; Peas (English); Beans (Pole); Okra; Cucumber; 60-70 days
Broccoli; Carrot; Pepper; Cabbage; Chinese Cabbage; Sweet Corn; Lima Beans (Bush); Crowder Peas; 70-85 days
Watermelon; Collards; Cantaloupe; Tomato; Lima Beans (Pole); Eggplant; Endive; Summer Squash; Rutabaga; 80-90 days
Winter Squash; Onions (Dry); Tomatillo; 100 days
Potato; Celeriac; Pumpkins; up to 120 days
Peanuts; 135 days
Sweet Potato; Parsnips; Salsify; 150 days
Rhubarb; 2 years
Asparagus; 3 years
Insect Patrol
While there are commercial insect sprays available at all garden centers, most will have the disadvantage of also killing beneficial insects which are so important to the life of your garden. Rather than introduce these products to your eco-system, take time to look at the plants and discover if there is any damage and what might be the cause. The white cabbage butterfly can be seen flitting about between your cabbage plants in June. Just turn over the leaves and search out the newly laid egg clusters. Wipe them off with your fingers or a cloth and you have prevented damage from this pest. Look at potato leaves for the eggs of the Colorado Potato Beetle which is a small black and white striped insect. Caterpillars may be removed and crushed underfoot. Look for small piles of green “manure” on your plant leaves in the early morning and you will often find the caterpillar tucked under a shady leaf for the day. Tomato Hornworms can easily be detected simply by the amount of damage done in one night. Find this large pale green worm and dispatch him summarily underfoot or feed him to your chickens!
Weeds
Pull weeds daily or at least while they are small. On no account let weeds go to seed in the garden, as your job next year will be that much harder. Be sure if at all possible to pull the entire plant including the root, as many weeds can re-grow from severed root stock if it is not all removed. Remember that a weed is any plant not growing in the desired location, so a volunteer tomato plant growing in your onion bed should be pulled out and discarded and transplanted into the tomato row.
Cover Crops
In dormant places in the garden or after harvesting an early crop, sow a plant which will be dug back into the soil as an improvement. Examples of such “cover crops” or “green manures” would be alfalfa, buckwheat, Sudangrass, hairy vetch, annual rye grass, or a legume crop such as cow or field peas or soybeans. Broadcast seed widely over the area and allow the plants to come up thickly so as to choke weeds and provide a living canopy over the soil surface. Roto-till or scythe and then dig the residues into the ground and improve your soil organically by providing food for earthworms and much needed plant material (humus) in the soil’s composition. Sandy soils will hold moisture with more humus, and clay soils are aerated or broken down with addition of humus. Be sure to allow enough time for your cover crops to break down in the soil before replanting vegetables.
Making Compost
In one corner of every good garden there should be a compost pile ready to receive weeds and crop residues. Do not leave cabbage leaves, corn stalks, or other plant leavings standing in the garden as they will provide habitats for over-wintering insect pests and diseases. Either loosely stack plant material in a heap or purchase or make your own compost container. A length of open weave wire fence can be formed into a circle about 3 to 4 ft. across and preferably no higher than 3 ft. on the sides. To make compost you need three things: organic matter, air, and water. Damp down the layers as you build the pile with a hose or watering can. In dry periods water the entire pile if rain is not expected to fall. The pile should be damp but not saturated.
Your compost “circle” should be filled by alternating layers of organic matter: dry brown (carbon) and moist green (nitrogen) materials (for example, used hay or straw between layers of grass clippings and weeds). Do not make any layer more than 4” deep, or you may smother the pile so that it cannot breakdown properly and instead merely decays in a stinking mess. Allow air to circulate through the container and lay branches or poles through the pile which can be removed later to produce air channels. Add kitchen scraps but no meat, which will encourage raiding animals. Barnyard manure may be added in small quantities to the various layers, but please no dog, cat, or human wastes because of the danger of pathogens.
If possible turn the compost once during the summer season; that is, prepare another such “circle” or bin, and fork the full heap over into the empty one. This will speed up the breakdown of the material in the pile. If you cannot turn your compost, simply let it sit through one garden season and winter and use it next Spring. Shovelfuls can be dug into beds or placed around perennial plants as a top dressing or mulch. Note that compost is produced by the breaking down of plant residues and manure, and this break down will continue after you have added the compost to the soil – in other words, do as nature does and keep making more!
Harvesting – Deciding if your fruits and vegetables are ready to be eaten
Most vegetables are at their peak when harvested small. Young, tender carrots, for instance, taste much better than older, woody ones. If you are approaching the number of days to harvest for the variety, closely examine the crops and see if some specimens could not now be taken and enjoyed. Some plants have specific tests to see if they have reached maturity. For instance, a Hubbard squash is good for root cellar storage if the skin is tough. Try with your fingernail to make an impression in the skin. If you can’t, it is ready for long term storage. Cantaloupes are ripe for eating when gently sliding your thumb against the vine easily separates it from the melon. They also have a strong fruit odor. Watermelons are ready when they sound hollow or thud when you knock on them. Consult gardening books for other “Is it ready to eat?” tips.
Preserving your harvest
Canning – Preserve many garden products by canning in glass jars or tin cans. Some may be processed in boiling water baths while others must be canned in pressure cookers. The ultimate reference for canning is the Ball Blue Book, published by Alltrista Corp., Muncie, IN 47307-0729. Please consult modern tables for canning times and information as older material has been revised.
Root cellar – If your home has a basement, take one corner and build a root cellar. This should be an unheated area which can be kept dark and cool. Provide open rack shelving and slatted bins for storage of whole winter squash, onions, or potatoes. Provide a screened ventilation source and check the stored produce regularly to look for decay and signs of insect or mice damage. Put out traps if necessary, not poison, to protect your food supply.
Freezing – Many vegetables can be successfully frozen after a process known as blanching, in which the produce is immersed quickly into boiling water and then packed in plastic tubs or strong plastic bags.
Drying – Commercial, round, electric powered food dehydrators are readily available, often with additional drying racks. Many fruits and vegetables can be processed in this way and stored in a small space due to the reduction in bulk. Tomatoes for drying should be of the paste rather than beefsteak type. Dryers are ideal for preserving herb crops too. Weigh produce before drying and during the process to determine the percentage of water lost. Foods should be cooled and then stored in airtight containers when the required percentage of water has been driven off. See manufacturer’s directions. Solar dryers can be homemade and home ovens can be used as dehydrators too.
Saving seed for next year
If you want to save seed, there are several books available on the subject. You can learn how to keep plants pure so that their seeds run true-to-type, as growing parent plants properly is the key to producing good seed for subsequent years. As a very general rule for the beginning seed saver, note that any plant with the same Latin name as another plant has the ability to, and most likely will, cross pollinate. In layman’s terms, planting Hubbard True Green Squash (Cucurbita maxima) and Big Max pumpkins (also Cucurbita maxima) in the same garden means that you should not save seed from either as they are insect pollinated. In all likelihood, the bees that went to one plant’s flowers also went to the other one so you will have a crossed seed resulting. If the plants have different Latin names, like cucumbers (Cucumis sativus) and zucchini (Cucurbita pepo), they cannot cross. On the other hand, several varieties of self-pollinated plants like beans, peas, tomatoes, and lettuce can be grown together without too much fear of crossing. If in any doubt, please consult a book on this fascinating topic.
Having grown your vegetables for seed, select the best specimens from the best plants and let the fruit fully mature to ensure that the seed within is at its best too. Cucumbers, for example, must be grown till well past their eating stage to grow seed useful for saving. Tomato, squash, pumpkin, melon, and cucumber seed all benefit from fermenting the seeds and the surrounding pulp for about three days before cleaning and then drying. The pulp should be put into a jar with a little water and shaken or stirred twice daily for three days. At the end of this time the pulp and immature seeds will be floating on top as scum, and the mature and useful seeds will have sunk to the bottom. Take these and dry them on labeled paper plates for about two weeks before placing in a cool, dry place; for instance, in a bag or tub in the freezer ready for planting next year.
Putting your garden to rest for the winter
Remove all crop residue and weeds from the entire garden and dump all in the compost bin. Anything left in the garden may harbor over-wintering insects which will be poised ready to attack your new crops in the Spring. If possible plant the garden with a cover crop, especially annual ryegrass, before the first Winter frost. This will grow into a thick cover for the garden and protect the soil from erosion over the cold season. Otherwise lay down a blanket of straw as mulch or even leaves collected in the Fall. These will cover the soil and break down before the next planting. Anything remaining in Spring can be raked up and put in the compost bin then.
Planning for next season
When planning locations of next year’s crops rotate your rows or beds so that each vegetable is planted in a different location than it was the previous year. Keep all your garden plans for a few years at a time to ensure you are holding to this rule.
Seed Starting Chart for Flowers
Follow the general seed starting directions above.
Flower Variety Weeks before last spring frost to start plants indoors
Pansies; Poppies; Snapdragons; 12
Calendula; 6
Marigolds; Zinnias; Nasturtium; Morning Glories; 4
Planting and Growing Sunflowers
For giant sized heads, space the plants at least three or four feet apart. Overcrowding will cause the plants to fall in heavy winds. In garden beds the plants should be grown along a fence or property line. There are also dwarf and semi-dwarf varieties which may be grown in mixed flower beds. Some produce multiple flower heads on branching stems.
Planting and Growing Sweet Peas
These do best in cool summers and need cool moist weather to grow and flower well. Sow the seed outside as soon as the ground can be worked in Spring. Vining varieties, which may often reach 10 feet in height, should be planted about 3” apart and support provided. Bushy types should be planted with about 10” between plants. All types need to be repeatedly cut for bouquets as they will die once setting seed. Please note: plants, pods, and seeds of Sweet Pea flower are all poisonous.
Seed Starting Chart for Herbs
Follow the general seed starting directions above.
Herb Variety Weeks before last spring frost to start plants indoors
Chives (Garlic and Onion); Oregano; Yarrow; Parsley; 12-14
Thyme; Chamomile. Feverfew; Catnip; 8-12
Dill; Chervil; Coriander; Lemon Balm; Sage; Savory; Basil; 6-8
Row Spacing Chart for Herb Plantings
Set out your herb seedlings according to the following chart:
Inches Herb Variety
6 Anise; Caraway; Chervil; Chives; Marjoram; Parsley; Savory; Sesame; Shallot;
10 Basil; Hyssop; Thyme;
12 Burnet; Costmary; Dill; Mint; Oregano; Tarragon;
15 Sage; Borage;
18 Fennel; Lemon Balm (Melissa officinalis); Rosemary; S
Thursday, 13 May 2010
World Bank to support Nigeria’s agric development
World Bank said it is ready to assist
The World Bank Country Director, Mr. Onno Ruhl said this Monday in a goodwill message he delivered at the Commercial Agriculture Development Project’s 4th Bimonthly progress review meeting in
He said the Bank was ready to assist
He said fast disbursement of funds to beneficiaries will be balanced with quality work for better results.
Onno Ruhl said the Bank expects Commercial Agriculture Development Project not just to safeguard Nigerian food security but to also “replace food importation with food exportation.”
CADP is a $150 million project is being implemented in
Onno Ruhl commended CADP team for the keen determination and competitiveness with which the participating states were implementing the project, adding that among the 28 projects supported by the World Bank only CADP was holding rotational implementation and supervision review meetings in the participating states.
Task Team Leader of the project, Lucas Akapa expressed satisfaction with the progress made by the five participating states in terms of laying solid foundation for the effective implementation of the project.
The National Project Coordinator of CADP, Aminu Babandi said the rotational bimonthly meetings were aimed at taking stock of the progress of the project in the implementing states, sharing experiences and developing action plan.
The Kano state Commissioner of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Alhaij Musa Sulaiman Shanono told the gathering that commercialization of agriculture has the potency to create wealth.
Wednesday, 10 February 2010
A Farmer Per Excellence
It has been said that the
Those jugs, not worth sending back, were discarded in a growing heap of broken shards known as Monte Testaccio. The fragments of an estimated 25 million “amphorae” created that man-made hill, which stands today on the bank of the
Farmers are great people. God made them and crowned them with greatness. The fruit of their labours speaks for them. This blog is created to celebrate wise farmers. Are you a farmer? You worth celebrating! You are unique and deserve to be lifted.
Tuesday, 5 May 2009
Very Close to You
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